Summer 2023 Int'l Environmental Issues & Globalization (by Robyn Stallman)

 

Wind Energy in Nicaragua and the role of EOLO

EOLO wind farm is located in the red part of the map, indicating the highest
wind flow.

Location of EOLO and other “Nica wind”:
The EOLO wind farm is located in between the West coast of Lake Nicaragua and the West coast of the Pacific Ocean in South West Nicaragua. In this location the wind comes either directly from the East or from the North East depending on the season.  It is all due to the location of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone.  During months such as May and June the Inter Tropical Convergence zone will be positioned directly over Nicaragua and Costa Rica causing strong winds and a lot of moisture to come from the east.  The convergence zone is the dynamic line that is formed by the convergence of the South East trade winds, and the North East trade winds.  The location of the convergence zone is dependent on the location of the sun above the Earths surface.  One other aspect to the location of EOLO is the geography.  Wind in this area may very easily travel across the Central American isthmus to the west coast of Nicaragua where Wind can very easily travel across Lake Nicaragua.  Therefore the wind is much closer to the ground than in other cases.  It just so happens that all of the wind energy companies in Nicaragua are located in this small area between Lake Managua, and the Pacific Ocean.  EOLO claims that the wind flow where their turbines are located has a typical wind flow of 8-8.8 m/s.  EOLO wants to place turbines in some low mountains directly west of their current facility due to more consistent, and stronger winds in that location.

Design and Construction:
The engineering involved in any macro wind energy project will always be very complex.  The model of wind turbine is known as the G90.  EOLO does not take part in any design of the turbine itself, it only takes part in the planning of the locations of the turbines and the construction of them.  The G90 model is made in France and shipped from there.  Within EOLO’s property there are six kilometers of roads.  These roads are lined with turbines each 90m in diameter (blades of the turbine are 44m).  The facility has a total of 18 turbines along lake Nicaragua, and 4 turbines on the East side of the Pan American Highway.  The blades of the turbines are lightweight, hollow, and made with very strong material such as fiber-glass and carbon fiber.  The turbines are made to be flexible in order to bend with winds of up to 21m/s.  If the wind reaches a speed higher than 21m/s the brake of the turbine will be engaged and the blades will be rotated to their most aerodynamic positions.  EOLO has a total of 7.8km of circuit due to their vast property and the location of substations.  The generator in the turbines produces energy with a low voltage, which is not efficient if the energy will be traveling a long distance.  Low voltage is not efficient because of the loss of energy through heat.  In order to prevent the loss of energy there is a transformer in the turbines, and a larger transformer in the substations.  The transformers convert the energy from 630 volts, to 34000 volts, to 200,000 volts and then the energy is sent out and used by the citizens of Nicaragua.


Energy Production:
The EOLO wind farm alone produces 42 megawatts of electricity.  The plant has 22 turbines each with an average production of 2MW.  In the area of the EOLO wind power facility there are 3 other large wind power facilities that basically function the same way as EOLO.  The first other plant is called Blue Power.  The site has an average production of 39.6 MW.  Just north of EOLO is the production facility Alba, which produces 40MW of energy.  The last wind farm in the EOLO area is called Amayo I and II, which on average produces 63 megawatts of electricity.  In total the capacity for these wing energy plants is 186.6 megawatts.  EOLO is 22.5% of the total wind energy in Nicaragua.  The percent of Nicaraguan electricity that is from wind energy is 27%.  Therefore EOLO alone is 6% of the total energy output for the whole country.  The country’s energy is divided into 5 different categories:  Biomass which accounts for 8.6% of the total energy, Hydro 10.8%, geothermal 14.4%, wind 26.8%, and non renewable sources 39.3%.  The amount of Wind energy is only going to increase from here on out.  In general renewable sources of energy are on the rise and non-renewables are having a downfall.

Energy Distribution:
Energy Distribution and sale is a complicated topic.  The topic has to do with politics, economics, and energy readily available.  All 3 of these factors are very dynamic, constantly changing.  Due to Nicaragua’s strong dependence on oil for energy in the past the country experienced a sever energy crisis.  Energy prices skyrocketed and the country was desperate for a new source of energy and a way to boost the economy.  The country looked at renewable energy resources for an answer and immediately began planning a new system.  In 2009 the first wind turbine was built.  Now in 2014 27% of the country’s electricity comes from wind energy.  The strategy has sparked economic growth, and a more stable supply of energy.  First factor that must be functioning for electricity to be produced by turbines is of course the wind.  The wind must be moving between 3 m/s and 21 m/s in order to harness energy.  Next, EOLO has a capacity of 60 MW. Therefore they have a cap on the amount of energy they are able to sell.  Once the electricity leaves the facility it must go through three organizations: The Ministry of Mines and Energy, CRIE,  and INE.  The ministry of energy and mines buys energy from energy companies, then INE monitors the quality of energy, then CRIE regulates energy going to other countries.  As of now Nicaragua does not have permission to sell energy to other countries but most likely will in the near future.  After these organizations the electricity goes to the consumers.


Pros of wind energy (and some cons):
Wind energy is a very efficient and sustainable source of energy.  Out of all sources of macro energy, wind energy most likely affects the environment the least.  Wind energy switches dependence on energy from nonrenewable sources (fossil fuels) to renewable sources.  As a result the amount of carbon emitted into the atmosphere, and soil is decreased significantly.  EOLO wind farm calculated how much carbon they prevented from releasing and the number came out to 110,054 tons of CO2 per year.  This is only from the use of 22 wind turbines producing 2 MW each.  The implementation also diverts support for petroleum companies, and lowers the production of petroleum.  The construction of EOLO has saved 99,016 barrels of petroleum being bought per year.  The use of wind energy at the EOLO plant lastly promotes development of the surrounding communities through modernization and easy access to electricity.  EOLO also promotes environmental education in the area simply due to their presence in the area.  The only possible cons to wind energy is the fact that sometimes they are very aesthetically unpleasing and that they are very expensive to build.  A country wanting to build modern wind turbines must have the available capital to invest in the turbines.  Which makes wind energy not possible in some places.

Maintenance and Land use at EOLO:
A modern wind turbine is built to last for a total of 120,000 operating hours over it’s life span of 20 years.  We are assuming that these turbines are producing energy for 66% of that 20 years.  The turbines may last longer, or shorter, depending on how well and how frequent maintenance is done.  Maintenance costs per year are anywhere from 1% -3% of the price of the turbine.  Typical maintenance includes all turbines being expected every day, blades to be cleaned off once a year (algae may grow on the blades, causing inefficiency), turbines to be shut off when the wind conditions are inappropriate, and miscellaneous repairs. 5.5 out of 10 times that there is needed repair on a turbine the problem is electrical.  Maintenance crews must fix the problem before too much money is lost.  Other than equipment management EOLO must deal with land management.  EOLO is located on the western beaches of lake Nicaragua and creates an environmental sanctuary that stretches kilometers along the lake shore.  EOLO has an employee dedicated to making an itinerary of species on the land and noting how the environment could be changing.  The land also has multiple uses, a very sustainable practice.  Within the EOLO land area there is cattle ranching and rice patties.  Products are sold locally by local farmers.

      

                     AUTHOR: Matt Richards

Arenal Hanging Bridges: Ecotourism in Relation to Conservation and Environmental Education

Ecotourism in Relation to Environmental Education: 
Just outside the small town of La Fortuna, tourists from all over the globe have been flocking to the Arenal Hanging Bridges. On this 440 hectare plot of property around 230 hectares are protected and actively conserved, the remaining land is used for small-scale cattle farming and agricultural purposes. Twelve years ago the bridges were completed and Arenal opened its gates to the public, allowing people to get a truly surreal glimpse into one of Costa Rica’s many tropical edens. Eco Tourism is a vital component of environmental education and its popularity has been rapidly growing for the past few decades. As visitors fill this trail riddled with the 12 hanging bridges they are soaking in the true beauty of their surroundings and learning every step of the way by experiencing all that the rainforest has to offer. Whether they are seeing howler monkeys transverse the canopy or leaf cutter ants march over their feet, the connection with nature at Arenal is very real and educational.

“Environmental education is one of the five criteria that must be fulfilled in order to perform ecotourism and is the key step towards the process of understanding the natural ecosystems and our role in them,” there are a variety of tours offered at this site designed to do just that (Arsenijevic and Bohanec). In particular, the Natural History Walk Tour, which focuses on all aspects of life in this particular ecosystem. The tour is guided by an expert naturalist capable of sharing their wealth of knowledge pertaining to the rich biodiversity of the area. That includes information on the flora and fauna as well as diverse collection of species such as different types of insects, reptiles, mammals and birds. A study done by the International Ecotourism Society in 2013, included statistics recorded by travel agents in regards to international transport. Costa Rica was reported to be the most popular destination by international travelers, with 49% of all international eco-tourists heading to this rich coast. This high percentage of ecotourism means that Costa Rica is doing a fantastic job educating people on the importance of human impact on the environment. The hanging bridges do their part by offering up unforgettable experiences and a straw to tap into the fountain of information that makes up the tropical rainforest.

Eco Tourism Revenue – Profits and Costs of Conservation: 

Ecotourism became a globally known term in the 1990’s as travelers started becoming more aware of their impacts on the environment. For the past twenty years, the largest environmental corporations on Earth have been paying close attention to environmental management and ways they can evolve into more sustainable companies. The hanging bridges at Arenal practice an extremely savvy business model in terms of overhead vs. profits. The property has been owned by the same family for over eighty years so the only overhead costs would come in the form of labor, conservation, and supplies needed for the restaurant located on the premises. 

   
The prices for entrance into the park are as follows: Adults- $24, Seniors- $19, and Students $14. There are two special tours offered at the park: The Natural History Tour which costs a minimum of $26 for students and the Early Bird Watching Tour which costs a minimum of $37 for students. Prices for adults and seniors are higher. With tens of thousands of visitors coming to the park each year profits are definitely being made. This is truly a win-win for all; the environment is being conserved, tourists are being immersed in nature, and the business is making a profit.  

Conservation Efforts:

Hanging bridges conservation area is a substantial example of conservation within Costa Rica.  The park is located just to the North West of Volcán Arenal.  The land has been under ownership for the past 85 years and has been a tourist destination for the past 15 or so.  Twelve years ago a 2 mile trail was constructed in a loop through the park.  The trail (seen in the picture to the right) has a concrete grid to keep all the soil in its place.  These concrete grids have prevented erosion over the past 12 years.  Erosion on trails can be a very significant problem. It starts with erosion from hikers walking over the same area repeatedly.  This creates a small trench in the middle of the trail.  Water then flows through this small trench to begin a negative feedback loop.  As water flows, the trench gets wider and deeper, allowing more water to flow through this small trench.  The process is repeated and the ecosystem is changed.

Two hundred forty hectares of the park are strictly protected.  The park has overnight guards that prevent poachers from coming anywhere near the area.  The owners of Hanging Bridges often hire biologists to take an inventory of species in the park.  The biologists recommend new conservation strategies to the park and the employees do what they can to facilitate these strategies.  Another aspect to the conservation within Hanging Bridges are the bridges themselves.  Much of the path, especially through the richest areas of the park, is on a bridge.  The bridges prevent disturbance of the sensitive forest floor by keeping hikers high above the ground and sometimes above the canopy. The protected area of Hanging Bridges is only 60% of the total land area.  The other 40% is used as farmland and residential area for the family that owns the land.  Although Hanging Bridges Park is a beautiful spectacle it is far from a flawless example of conservation.  The park needs to be much larger and human presence needs to be lower.  The owners are doing what they can, but it is more of an ecotourism destination rather than conservation.

Ants in an Ecosystem:

Ants are a very important part to any ecosystem.  They are the most abundant species within a rainforest ecosystem.  The biomass, or combined weight, of ants within a rainforest ecosystem is higher than that of a group of any other species.  There are 3 common types of ant: Leaf-Cutter Ants (seen in picture), Army Ants, and Bullet Ants.  Leaf-cutter ants are known to be the farmers of the ant world.  Leaf-Cutter Ants make organized highways to transport pieces of leaves to their nest.  Within the nest they use the pieces of leaves to grow a fungus which they feed on.  There are a few different types of leaf cutters: 1. Minims: The smallest workers of the colony.  Their job is to tend to the growing fungus within the nest, 2. Minors: The first line of defense.  They patrol the surrounding area of the nest. 3.Mediae:  Generalized foragers. They cut leaves and bring the pieces back to the nest.  and 4.Majors:  The largest workers.  Move large items and defend the nest.

After Leaf-Cutter ants come Army Ants.  Army Ants are very aggressive and savage.  Army Ants march throughout the day and eat anything in their path.  There are three types: workers, males, and the queen.  Workers are typically sterile females that are in charge of attacking and hunting.  Males are meant for breeding with the queen so she can do her job, lay eggs.  The most dangerous type of ant to humans is known as the Bullet Ant.  In some places in Central and South America the Bullet Ant is known as “Hormiga Veinticuatro” because of it’s painful sting that lasts around 24 hours.  A colony of Bullet Ants nests at the base of a tree.  The colony will depend of that tree for food.  Ants climb up the tree in search of nectar and small insects for food. Ants are an important and large part to any rainforest ecosystem.  They are food for several species and aid in the decomposition.  The loss of ants within an ecosystem could have astounding negative impacts.

Components of the Rainforest:

The Rainforest is a very lush ecosystem consisting of as many as 15 million species.  All of these species work together as a community.  Hanging Bridges park is a great example of a functioning community.  The components of a community include producers, primary consumers, and secondary consumers.  Thanks to the conservation of Hanging Bridges Park I was able to observe how these biotic factors work together. The first component of the rainforest are the producers.  Producers of the rainforest harness the energy of the sun and convert it to useful energy.  Trees, shrubs, and epiphytes are all producers.  These plants use photosynthesis to convert sunlight into glucose for energy. Next are the Consumers.  Consumers cannot make their own food; therefore they eat other living things to gain energy.  The word “Consumers” is separated into primary consumers and secondary consumers.  Primary consumers are animals that eat producers.  Secondary consumers are those that eat primary consumers for energy.  Some are top predators such as snakes, jaguars, and lions. Last are the decomposers.  Decomposers are the most important type of species because of their ability to process organic matter.  The decomposers of the rainforest are the fastest working out of any ecosystem.  They include termites, earthworms and fungi.  Outside of all these biotic factors, abiotic factors are hard at work recycling nutrients and critical elements.  Examples of these abiotic factors include the water cycle, nutrient cycle, pollination, filtration, and others.  These processes are vital to all life.

Educational Advantages Specific to Suspension Bridges:
While we were on our hike through the rainforest the suspension bridges allowed us a peak into the dense vegetation that we could not have gotten otherwise. The hanging bridges provide a truly unique learning experience, giving visitors a 360-degree birds-eye view. There are four layers that make up a rainforest: forest floor, understory, canopy layer, and the emergent layer. The trail covers all four layers from bottom to top. Little grows on the forest floor as it receives two percent of the total sunlight. There is a thin layer of leaves, branches, seeds and other organic material on the forest floor that quickly get decomposed. The understory is still very dark; small trees and leafy plants that can tolerate low light grow in this layer. The canopy layer is home to 90% of life in the rainforest because most organisms are seeking sunlight. Located 60-90 feet above ground, many plants are found here. We observed a variety of epiphytes in this layer. Epiphytes grow along the outer layer of trees in order to hitch a ride to the sunlight, but they are not parasites. The emergent layer is home to the largest trees in the rainforest. These trees are exposed to the greatest amount of sunlight, highest temperatures, low humidity, and the strongest winds.  Without the aid of the bridges scientists and students like ourselves would not be able to get such in depth looks at the rainforest in Arenal. 

AUTHORS: Matt Richards, Blake LeCroy

Volunteering at the Sunlight School (SLP)

Private School VS Public School
The Sunlight School is a small private school that offers preschool through 12th grade classes. In Costa Rica, much like any other country in the world, there are both private and public schools.
There are significant advantages associated with private schools that public schools cannot support. The largest differences between them is the size of the classes and, in turn, the attention given to individual children. At the Sunlight School, classes have no more than 12 students. At public schools, classes have 30 students or more. The size of the classes directly coincides with the attention given from teachers to students on an individual basis. The Sunlight school, as well as many other private schools, pride themselves on being able to give each student individualized attention. Each student is able to receive assistance in a way that is unique and personal for them. Not every student understands and learns at the same speed so by receiving one-on-one attention with the teacher, the student is able to better understand and grasp the material at hand. In public schools, individualized attention is unfortunately not offered.

This is due to the larger amount of students which makes it virtually impossible for the teacher to address each student's doubts and questions. When a child is able to receive individualized attention with their academics, it leads them to be more confident in their work and communicating. On the other hand, if a student rarely has their questions answered or doubts taken away, they are left feeling frustrated and will be more prone to giving up.  Another key component and difference between public and private schools is that at the Sunlight School, children are learning to pronounce their syllables and form words as early as 4 years old. In the public school system, children are learning to pronounce their syllables and form words as late as the 4th grade. During my time volunteering at the Sunlight School I worked with the 7th and 5th grade English classes.

7th Grade Worksheet

The 7th Grade English Class
The 7th grade English class touches on many different aspects of English and how to approach the language, with a primary focus on writing and speaking. In the past few weeks, the students have been studying occupations and professions as well as personal information and spelling. When approaching the idea of occupations and professions, the children completed worksheets in their English book and
would come up with sentences for each workbook scenario. Once the sentences were completed, they were shared with the class in order to improve the students speaking at the same time as working on writing. When it came to personal information, the students wrote and presented on their daily routines, members of their families, and other general information using primarily simple present-tense. Having the children present their work encourages them to do their best. Additionally, when they speak the language, the children are learning the connection between what they write and speak, and not only focus on book work. This allows the children to learn the language more rapidly and understand it better at the same time, assuming there is ample time for questions.

As a volunteer in the 7th grade English class I helped out in many different ways and was able to sit back and observe the way the children were learning English and how they reacted to troubles and successes. The class had 6 students and I was able to work with each one on one. Each student had different level of understanding English and I was able to cater to each one's needs. I was put to work helping the children with pronunciation, spelling, and usage of present and past tense. Once the children worked on a subject for a certain amount of time, they would present their work to the other students, the teacher, and me. I would then help them with sentence placements and how to speak properly. The children who were not as advanced spent extra time with me going over their work, and I was able to challenge the higher-leveled students by giving them a few extra exercises to do. The only girl in the English class had traveled to the United States so she was able to speak and understand English very well. I helped her by giving her English words to spell for an upcoming spelling bee.

Being able to sit back and observe the students was very interesting. The most surprising thing I saw and thought was fantastic was the way that the students who were more advanced in the English language would offer their assistance to the students who were less advanced without even being asked. There was a great sense of community within the classroom, even with only 6 students. I also noticed that the teacher would explain everything to the students in English and would do so unless they really did not understand. At that point she would proceed by telling them some of it in Spanish to help, but still let them figure it out on their own for the most part. I thought that this was a great way to teach because it encourages the students to be attentive to what is going on without taking the easy way out of lessons or activities. Lastly, I noticed that the 7th grade was less confident and willing to take a risk when speaking English and asking questions than the 5th graders were.                        
                                         

5th Grade Worksheet 

The 5th Grade English Class
Much like the 7th grade class, the 5th grade English class touches on many different aspects of English and how to approach it, with a primary focus on learning different tenses and doing bookwork, with occasional games involved in the lesson plan. In the past few weeks, the students have been focusing on the past and future tenses, as well as singular and plural nouns. The students were able to practice these lessons through bookwork, handouts, and board work. One of the children’s favorite activities was playing Hot Potato with a fake bomb. When the ticker went off, the student with the bomb would be given a past tense word that they would have to use in a sentence. Unlike the 7th grade, the 5th grade did not present their work to the class; rather they would go over things individually with the teacher.

As a volunteer in the 5th grade English class I helped out in specific ways and was able to observe them just as I had with the 7th grade class. In the class there were 12 students and they were assigned seats with two to a desk. I was put to work helping the children with pronunciation, spelling, sentence formations, and writing. During the class I would walk around to each child and help them one-on-one. Before a lesson I would explain things in English. When helping the children, I found that occasionally, because of the language barrier, the teacher would have to explain directions or use certain words in Spanish to allow the student to better understand what I was saying. This process was very similar to my interaction with the class and teacher in the 7th grade classroom. I was also in charge of checking all of the children’s work once they were finished.

When observing the 5th grade English class I noticed how different they were from the 7th grade English class. While the 7th grade class was more hesitant to ask for my help or to really engage in the language, the 5th graders were eager and very excited to ask for my help. The 5th graders were eager to speak to me in English as much as possible to get feedback and just have fun connecting. Just like the 7th grade, the 5th grade was a community when it came to helping one another. Although they did not focus as much on speaking English as a way to reinforce their skills, doing book work, worksheets, and playing games was an easier way for these students to learn and pick up the language. The experience allowed me to realize how different children learn at different ages and the way they react to what is presented to them. I had such a wonderful time working with both classes, and knowing I contributed to them learning English means a great deal to me. They ended up teaching me a lot as a result of me connecting with them. I felt like I was a part of the school rather than just  a visitor.

Written by Sierra DiMartino

Achieving Sustainable Development Through Women's Entrepreneurship: A Comparative Study of Social Microenterprises in Costa Rica and Nicaragua

INTRODUCTION

Women around the world, especially in 'developing' countries, are key players in the management of natural resources and the development of healthy communities. As the primary caretakers of children and the family, they are responsible for nutrition, health and management of the household. As managers of the household, they also engage in environmental activities, often assuming the roles of food producer, animal tender, water and fuel collector. Furthermore, they represent approximately half of most countries’ population and therefore half of the potential labor force. Yet, despite their significant contributions to the well-being of society, their voices remain underrepresented at all levels of the decision-making processes on issues related to the environment and development.

In the last two decades, the voices of women are being increasingly heard. Their full equality, participation and leadership are being supported and promoted at the local, national and international level through countless programs. Microenterprise is one such program that has spread like wildfire across developing nations targeting rural women, particularly in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Hailed as a form of economic salvation, microenterprises have not only helped women generate income, but also overcome gender barriers,develop invaluable leadership skills, a remarkable entrepreneurial spirit and a strong sense of activism. In this sense, female-led microenterprises can have a positive impact on multiple levels—economic, environmental and social—which essentially reflects the goals of “sustainable development.” Limited research shows the impact of women entrepreneurs on sustainable development. Most studies tend to focus on economic growth and the market economy.

This comparative study examines the increasingly important role of female entrepreneurs in achieving sustainable development at the grassroots level. Drawing on five case studies conducted over a two month period in Costa Rica and Nicaragua, the study shows the remarkable transformation of everyday rural housewives into social entrepreneurs leading microenterprises that benefit themselves, the community and the environment. It will also provide a brief overview and summary of the characteristics most common to these organizations including noteworthy successes and challenges.

The following are the woman-led microenterprises covered by the study (click on names to view individual posts):

1. Grupo Ecologico de Mujeres de Abanico (GEMA) – A medicinal plant cooperative that grows, processes and sells herbs in La Fortuna, Costa Rica. 

2. Colectivo Feminino Resclatando Nuestro Ecologia (COFERENE) – A community-wide recycling program in San Ramon, Costa Rica.

3. Asociacion de Mujeres Agroindustriales de San Luis de Grecia (ASOMAG) – An all-natural beauty product industry in Grecia, Costa Rica.

4. Asociacion de Mujeres de Reciclaje (AMURECI) – A recycled art and souvenir business in Santa Clara, Costa Rica.

5.  Genesis – A cotton spinning cooperative in Ciudad Sandino, Nicaragua

THE THREE E’S EQUAL SUSTAINABILITY: ENVIRONMENT, ECONOMY AND EQUITY

The concept of sustainability arose in 1983 with the United Nations creation of The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) led by Gro Harlem Bruntland, former Prime Minister of Norway. The Commission was formed to develop and implement ways environmental concerns could be addressed cooperatively among developing countries and result in the fulfillment of common goals that integrate ecological, social and economic issues.

With the release of the world-reknowned Brundtland report in 1987 entitled “Our Common Future”, an official contemporary definition of “sustainable development” was established. Sustainable development is still widely regarded as "development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs".  The Brundtland report was groundbreaking in that it integrated social justice in the environmental debate declaring that inequality and poverty were the fundamental causes of the environmental crisis. After all, a world in which poverty and gender inequity persists will always be prone to both ecological and economic disasters.

At the heart of sustainability lies the concept of the three E's: Ecology/environment, economy/employment, and equity/equality.  Ideally any proposed initiative should consider the simultaneous interaction of these three elements. All Three Es require a long-term perspective and recognize the interdependence of all the “E’s.” Sustainability seeks to satisfy the needs and interests of all parties within the framework of concern for equity. This expanded focus offers the great possibility for broader changes to happen within a community and between communities (Edwards, 16-21).

Within this holistic model of sustainability, we shall see how female entrepreneurs in Central America have naturally incorporated the Three Es into the mission of their microenterprises and made an incredible impact on their community.


BIRTH OF THE MICROENTERPRISES

In the last 10-15 years, rural women across Costa Rica and
Nicaragua have taken ownership of problems plaguing their
community by organizing themselves and forming small
productive organizations that promote personal economic
growth, environmental conservation and social justice.  GEMA,
a medicinal plant cooperative,and ASOMAG, a natural
beauty product business emerged to combat the widespread
use of toxic pesticides that resulted in chronic health problems
among women and children, as well as the destruction of fertile
lands. COFERENE, a community recycling program and AMURECI, a recycled art business began as a way to creatively
reduce the level of trash suffocating their community while generating meaningful employment for women. Genesis,
a cotton spinning cooperative, made up of mostly women from
the second poorest city in the second poorest country in Latin
America, organized to secure basic services and a stable income
for their families. In sum, being most affected by the environmental degradation, pollution and/or lack of basic services, women have taken matters into their own hands and constructed microenterprises in the hopes of creating a better future for themselves and their family.

Furthermore, rural women appear to be drawn to the idea of self-employment in microenterprises for a number of reasons: flexible hours, close proximity to the home, working with close friends and family members, combining income generation with domestic and reproductive tasks, freedom to make structural changes and connection to local markets.


CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MICROENTERPRISES

• Small to medium size; comprised of 5-18 workers
• Led or dominated by women

DEMOGRAPHICS OF WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS

• Age: between 20 and 70

• Marital status: mostly married but also includes single and divorced women

• Number of children: 1-5

• Education level: women above age 40 tend to possess a K-6 level education while others a K-12; very few have a university degree.

• Socioeconomic status: marginalized, low-income communities

• Current occupations: President, Vice President, Treasurer, Secretary, or member of an association or cooperative

• Former occupations: housewife/homemaker and occasionally with small side jobs such as selling food drinks and handicrafts in the community.

• Multifunctional role: perform multifunctional roles as homemaker and businesswoman combining the concern for the well-being of their family with the business activities.

COMMON THEMES AND SUCCESSES

There are striking similarities in the successes achieved and the key values practiced by the organizations that truly resonate with the concepts of sustainability.

• Environmental Stewardship – All of organizations are committed to the sustainable use of natural resources. GEMA and ASOMAG grow the natural ingredients for their products on 100% organic farms. COFERENE and AMURECI are dedicated to the 3 Rs – Reduce, Reuse and Recycle. COFERENE collects, processes and sells recycled materials compiled in the community to local, national and international businesses. AMURECI’s products are 100% environmentally friendly and made from natural or recycled materials. Genesis believes in the clean, sustainable production of organic cotton.

• Fair distribution – Women in the microenterprises have equal access to fair wages and professional growth. The businesses are owned and managed by the workers. As a “worker-owned” cooperative, Genesis lives and breathes fairness as each worker is entitled to a fair share and the business is based on the 1person/1vote principle.

• Democratic participation- All workers have a voice and participate in the decision-making process. As mentioned Genesis was designed to guarantee the democratic participation of all cooperative workers.

• Cultivation of women’s leadership – As female-oriented groups, they are dedicated to supporting the spiritual, economic and social growth of other women by facilitating women’s workshops, supporting local women’s initiatives and continually recruiting more women into their program. All the women have grown tremendously in their entrepreneurship roles. They have gained enormous self-confidence in a strong “macho” society and attained unimaginable levels of socio-economic independence from their husbands.

• Inter-generational perspective- As mothers responsible for the well-being of the family, especially the children, they tend to think about the impact of their actions on future generations. Their long-term perspective motivates them to pass the valuable skills acquired through trial and error and formal trainings to their children. Many of the women plan to pass their business roles on to their daughters. Some of their children already participate in their businesses to a certain degree.

• Interdependence – Participating in both domestic and agricultural work, these female entrepreneurs possess a natural understanding of the interconnectedness of the social, economic and environmental fields. They made a conscious decision to build a business that would benefit the entire community including the natural world. Generating income alone does not fully sustain families if they are being debilitated by widespread diseases from the consumption of contaminated local food and water.

• Community development – The women are continually developing new ways to meet the changing and growing needs of society. The small size of their businesses allow the women to easily refocus their efforts on different areas of the community at any given time. AMURECI is predominantly concerned with recycled paper and artwork, but they also connect women to employment opportunities, provide them with leadership advice and support small local projects.

• Education – Having minimal formal education, these women feel blessed to have completed a vast numbers of trainings virtually related to every sector in society: business management, leadership, gender, communication, conflict resolution, information technology, construction, art, beauty, farming, medicinal plants and the list goes on. Becoming educated in an array of fields has significantly raised their self-esteem and helped them perceive themselves as professional businesswomen. Some have continued their education on their own at local universities and received government-sponsored scholarships. Others have used their skills to start side businesses to supplement their income. Not only are they dedicated to educating themselves, but they become inspired and motivated to educate more women by organizing and facilitating workshops, sharing what they have learned others.

• Multi-level partnerships – The success of all of these organizations can also be attributed to the resources leveraged from local, national and international institutions. The Instituto Nacional de Aprendizaje (INA), a national Costa Rican vocational training institute has been instrumental in imparting basic skills to women that are starting a new business. The Jubilee House Community Inc is an American NGO in Nicaragua that has worked vigorously to train cooperative workers of Genesis in all the nuts and bolts of business administration and management . In all of the microenterprises, women have worked with local schools, universities, private businesses, the municipality, the national government, other microenterprises and international organizations to secure funding, training opportunities, equipment and new markets for the products.

• Optimism – No matter how great the odds, the women have managed to maintain a remarkably positive attitude. AMURECI is severely struggling with finances and also dealing with the constant lack of community support for their program. With their well-endowed creativity, they have generated new projects bring in additional income. Genesis was deceived $150,000 and have not been able to start work because of the fraud. Amazingly, however, all 18 members remain motivated, hopeful and strong. Like AMURECI, they have designed an alternative income generating project to focus on in the meantime.
  

• Unity – Combined with their positive outlook, the women have grown and bonded tremendously together. They have supported each other through the organizations’ peaks and valleys. They have learned to work cooperatively together and also learned much from each other. It is impressive that a group as large as Genesis has continued to work together despite the magnitude of their challenges. COFERENE successfully maintains worker moral by organizing several family-oriented staff excursions a year, bringing the members closer together each time.

OBSTACLES THAT IMPEDE GROWTH

• Tradition – Stands as one of the greatest to barriers for women’s participation in public processes. Women are still expected to dominate the domestic sphere. Their valid reasons for involvement are no match for the religious, cultural and other sociological influences that keep women at home. In the beginning stages of every microenterprise, there is always a large number of female participants. Over time, however, the numbers tend to drop by more than half. Lack of spousal support is cited as the number one reason for the lack of female participation in small business initiatives.
  

• Dual roles – All the women juggled multiple responsibilities as the primary caretakers of the home and family, and as the income generators outside the house. Many times, women were permitted to participate under the condition that all responsibilities in the home remained in their hands and completely unchanged. This dual role puts immense pressure on women to combine household responsibilities with business activities and may limit their ability to reach their full potential as female entrepreneurs.

• Lack of financial capital – Microenterprises are constantly finding themselves struggling to keep their goods and services afloat due the continued lack of funds. Even when financial stability is secured, the loans women receive are seldom large enough to enable the expansion of microenterprises.

 
RECOMMENDATIONS

• Capacity building – All of the female entrepreneurs expressed their love and enthusiasm for learning through various capacitation workshops. Local, regional, national and international conferences that regularly bring these change-makers together would help reaffirm their efforts, inspire new ideas for growth and change, provide training in new skill sets, and facilitate the exchange of successes and challenges with like-minded individuals. Conferences also greatly increase the representation of women in the decision-making process at all levels, allowing them to voice their specific needs. A step further would also be pairing newly emerging entrepreneurs with veterans from at home and abroad that share similar experiences and expertise.

• Volunteer support- Ecotourism or sustainable tourism is an increasingly popular trend among developed countries. In a country that attracts the largest number of tourists in Central America, organizations can recruit volunteers not only through national and international volunteer organizations, but also through tour agencies. They can market their programs in a way that catches the attention of tourists seeking authentic opportunities to interact with the locals in a meaningful way. Sending a flyer or brochure with their mission statement and the volunteer opportunities available could expand their volunteer base. While they may receive short term volunteers, they may also find those that come with the intention of staying for longer periods. Furthermore, a focus on long-term volunteers will also require that lodging options. Organizations can generate extra income by hosting volunteers and charging a reasonable fee. This way, they gain free labor, supplemental income and an enriching intercultural experience.

• Marketing – All of these microenterprises offer goods and services that are highly beneficial to the community. Yet, most community members are uninformed about the noble work these entrepreneurs do. A comprehensive marketing strategy that targets government officials, local community members, national and international organizations would attract greater attention and lead to greater support in various forms (funds, in-kind, volunteer, etc) for their businesses.

CONCLUSION

Women-led microenterprises can become an important vehicle of sustainable development from the bottom-up. As small-scale, low investment projects, they provide immediate personal fulfillment and stable employment, especially for uneducated or semi-educated women. Microenterprises empower women to be self-sufficient financially and emotionally, enabling them to make a meaningful difference in their lives. As this study shows, women are generating new concepts for entrepreneurship by leading microenterprises that, in the long run, produce far reaching economic, social and environmental impacts for the entire community.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Christie, I. & Warburton, D. 2001. From Here to Sustainability: Politics in the Real World. London: Earthscan.

Edwards, A.R. 2005 The Sustainability Revolution: Portrait of a Paradigm Shift. B.C.: New Society Publishers.

GTZ. World Bank. Inter-American Development Bank. 2010. "Women’s Economic Opportunities in the Formal Private Sector in Latin America and the Caribbean: A Focus on Entrepreneurship."

Portilla, Melania. 2007. “ The Growing Strength of Rural Micro-entrepreneurs in Latin America and the Caribbean.” COMUNIICA.

Author: Joan Ngo